Readers of a certain age might remember Dolly, a Finn-Dorset sheep born in 1996 to three mothers and some proud Scottish scientists. Dolly generated global headlines just by being alive, as she was the first mammal to be cloned using DNA taken from body (somatic) cells.

In this form of cloning, a somatic cell provides the cloned animal’s complete DNA, which is then injected into an unfertilized egg cell that has had its existing genetic material removed. Zap the egg with a bit of current, implant it into the womb of a surrogate mother, wait a few months, and bam—out pops Dolly.

The process proved that the magic of embryonic development wasn’t hidden only in eggs and sperm; even somatic cells from mature animals were capable of reproducing the whole creature and of generating any cell needed by the developing embryo.

Dolly was more than a science experiment, though; she helped kickstart an entire commercial industry in animal cloning. Once the technology made it possible, what would people want to clone? Their pets, for one, but also high-value animals—especially those creatures that were both rare and illegal to possess.

All of that explains how an octogenarian rancher named Arthur Schubarth yesterday found himself sentenced to six months in federal prison for cloning a sheep.

Clone wars

Just like computing, cloning technology has come a long way since 1996. And just like computing, cloning has become a service. You no longer need a lab; today, you can just ship cells off to a company, have them create cloned embryos and store the embryos in a freezer, and then—at a time of your choosing—have the embryos show up in your mailbox for local implantation into a surrogate animal mother.

Arthur Schubarth ran a 215-acre Montana game farm called Sun River Enterprises that specialized in raising mountain sheep and goats. The animals were often sold to game ranches where hunters would track and kill them for sport.

Buyers wanted “trophy” animals, and in the world of big-game sheep hunting—which I have just learned is a thing—the Marco Polo argali (ovis ammon polii) is the biggest and gamiest. Argali sheep can grow to 300 pounds, making them the largest sheep in the world, and they have the largest horns of any wild sheep.

If you want to complete an “Ovis World Slam,” you need to embark on a global sheep-slaughtering tour and kill at least 12 wild varieties. Given their size, argali sheep are one of the most sought, but they live largely in the mountainous regions of Pakistan, Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.

On February 3, 2023, a train carrying chemicals jumped the tracks in East Palestine, Ohio, rupturing railcars filled with hazardous materials and fueling chemical fires at the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains.

The disaster drew global attention as the governors of Ohio and Pennsylvania urged evacuations for a mile around the site. Flames and smoke billowed from burning chemicals, and an acrid odor radiated from the derailment area as chemicals entered the air and spilled into a nearby creek.

Three days later, at the urging of the rail company Norfolk Southern, about 1 million pounds of vinyl chloride, a chemical that can be toxic to humans at high doses, was released from the damaged train cars and set aflame.

Federal investigators later concluded that the open burn and the black mushroom cloud it produced were unnecessary, but it was too late. Railcar chemicals spread into Ohio and Pennsylvania.

As environmental engineers, I and my colleagues are often asked to assist with public health decisions after disasters by government agencies and communities. After the evacuation order was lifted, community members asked for help.

In a new study, we describe the contamination we found, along with problems with the response and cleanup that, in some cases, increased the chances that people would be exposed to hazardous chemicals. It offers important lessons to better protect communities in the future.

How chemicals get into homes and water

When large amounts of chemicals are released into the environment, the air can become toxic. Chemicals can also wash into waterways and seep into the ground, contaminating groundwater and wells. Some chemicals can travel below ground into nearby buildings and make the indoor air unsafe.

Air pollution can find its way into buildings through cracks, windows, doors, and other portals. Once inside, the chemicals can penetrate home items like carpets, drapes, furniture, counters, and clothing. When the air is stirred up, those chemicals can be released again.

Evacuation order lifted, but buildings were contaminated

Three weeks after the derailment, we began investigating the safety of the area near 17 buildings in Ohio and Pennsylvania. The highest concentration of air pollution occurred in the 1-mile evacuation zone and a shelter-in-place band another mile beyond that. But the chemical plume also traveled outside these areas.

In and outside East Palestine, evidence indicated that chemicals from the railcars had entered buildings. Many residents complained about headaches, rashes, and other health symptoms after reentering the buildings.

At one building 0.2 miles away from the derailment site, the indoor air was still contaminated more than four months later.

Nine days after the derailment, sophisticated air testing by a business owner showed the building’s indoor air was contaminated with butyl acrylate and other chemicals carried by the railcars. Butyl acrylate was found above the two-week exposure level, a level at which measures should be taken to protect human health.

When rail company contractors visited the building 11 days after the wreck, their team left after just 10 minutes. They reported an “overwhelming/unpleasent odor” even though their government-approved handheld air pollution detectors detected no chemicals. This building was located directly above Sulphur Run creek, which had been heavily contaminated by the spill. Chemicals likely entered from the initial smoke plumes and also rose from the creek into the building.

Our tests weeks later revealed that railcar chemicals had even penetrated the business’s silicone wristband products on its shelves. We also detected several other chemicals that may have been associated with the spill.

Weeks after the derailment, government officials discovered that air in the East Palestine Municipal Building, about 0.7 miles away from the derailment site, was also contaminated. Airborne chemicals had entered that building through an open drain pipe from Sulphur Run.

More than a month after the evacuation order was lifted, the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency acknowledged that multiple buildings in East Palestine were being contaminated as contractors cleaned contaminated culverts under and alongside buildings. Chemicals were entering the buildings.

The co-owner of a Chicago-based lab has pleaded guilty for his role in a COVID testing scam that raked in millions—which he used to buy stocks, cryptocurrency, and several luxury cars while still squirreling away over $6 million in his personal bank account.

Zishan Alvi, 45, of Inverness, Illinois, co-owned LabElite, which federal prosecutors say billed the federal government for COVID-19 tests that were either never performed or were performed with purposefully inadequate components to render them futile. Customers who sought testing from LabElite—sometimes for clearance to travel or have contact with vulnerable people—received either no results or results indicating they were negative for the deadly virus.

The scam, which ran from around February 2021 to about February 2022, made over $83 million total in fraudulent payments from the federal government’s Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), which covered the cost of COVID-19 testing for people without insurance during the height of the pandemic. Local media coverage indicated that people who sought testing at LabElite were discouraged from providing health insurance information.

In February 2022, the FBI raided LabElite’s Chicago testing site amid a crackdown on several large-scale fraudulent COVID testing schemes. In March 2023, Alvi was indicted by a federal grand jury on 10 counts of wire fraud and one count of theft of government funds. The indictment sought forfeiture of his ill-gotten riches, which were listed in the indictment.

The list included five vehicles: a 2021 Mercedes-Benz, a 2021 Land Rover Range Rover HSE, a  2021 Lamborghini Urus, A 2021 Bentley, and a 2022 Tesla X. There was also about $810,000 in an E*Trade account, approximately $500,000 in a Fidelity Investments account, and $245,814 in a Coinbase account. Last, there was $6,825,089 in Alvi’s personal bank account.

On Monday, the Department of Justice announced a deal in which Alvi pleaded guilty to one count of wire fraud, taking responsibility for $14 million worth of fraudulent HRSA claims. He now faces up to 20 years in prison and will be sentenced on February 7, 2025.

This year marks the 50th anniversary of the tabletop role-playing game (TTRPG) Dungeons & Dragons (D&D). A game of creativity and imagination, D&D lets players weave their own narrative, blending combat and roleplaying in an immersive gaming experience. And now, psychologists and therapists are working to turn it into a tool by exploring its potential benefits as a group therapy technique.

Research is still in progress to determine if there are links between playing D&D and enhanced empathy and social skills, but the real-life impact of D&D therapy is slowly gaining traction as staff of counseling practices that have embraced D&D group therapy say they are witnessing these benefits firsthand.

“It seems particularly useful in combating the effects of social isolation and improving both interpersonal skills and intrapersonal skills (problem-solving),” explained Gary Colman, the chairman of Game Therapy UK, a registered charity staffed by volunteer professionals who are developing evidence-based therapeutic gaming projects. “In practical terms, it can also be used for a range of purposes, including modeling positive behavior and teaching soft social skills and basic educational skills, including language and numeracy.”

What is D&D?

At the heart of D&D lies the power of imagination. The Dungeon Master (DM), who plays the roles of all non-player characters (NPCs) and monsters, sets the stage for various scenes and acts to open up the limitless possibilities and creative potential of the game.

Players customize their characters’ abilities and personalities to either participate in a roleplaying session, act out scenes with NPCs to further the story, or engage in combat with terrifying monsters like bugbears or gloomstalkers. Individual gaming sessions can run for multiple hours and, combined, allow players to work through a larger campaign that lasts for weeks or even years.

The game was created in 1974 by Ernest Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson. Gygax’s company, TSR, Inc. (Tactical Studies Rules), steadily grew into a multimillion-dollar business but was plagued by leadership and financial issues for decades. Ultimately, TSR was acquired by its competitor, Wizards of the Coast (the company responsible for Magic: The Gathering) in 1997 (Wizards of the Coast would be acquired by Hasbro in 1999).

While D&D had humble beginnings as a niche fantasy game played only by nerds, its popularity has skyrocketed, partially due to Netflix’s blockbuster show Stranger Things. Since the show’s release in 2016, sales of the game have reached a high not seen in 30 years. Netflix even offered D&D tutorials to Stranger Things fans who wanted to learn to play the game like their favorite characters. The show boosted D&D’s popularity so much that Hasbro released a Stranger Things D&D starter set.

Unlike on previous shows where it has made appearances, such as The X-Files or The Big Bang Theory, D&D is central to the plot of Stranger Things, as it’s played by the show’s main heroes as they try to learn more about the mythical “Upside Down” realm in their town. Monsters and villains like the Demigorgon and Vecna are even named after real D&D baddies.

Stranger Things also accurately portrays the impacts that the 1980s Satanic Panic movement had on D&D. The Satanic Panic was led by religious fundamentalist groups who claimed that D&D promoted worship of the devil, witchcraft, violence, and teen suicides. The backlash against the game was so acute that it was banned from many schools in the early 1980s, and the second edition removed all devils and demons. Ultimately, confirming that there’s no such thing as bad publicity, this helped the game become more popular.

Stranger Things helped supercharge the game’s renewed popularity.” src=”https://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/DNDST-640×320.png” width=”640″ height=”320″ srcset=”https://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/DNDST-1280×640.png 2x”>

Links to the Satanic Panic can be found early in the show, such as the disappearance of Will in season one, which was inspired by the real-life disappearance of Michigan State University student James Dallas Egbert III in August 1979—an event that helped kick off the Satanic Panic movement. While Egbert III reappeared a month later, detectives working the case believed that D&D had inspired Egbert to hide in his school’s steam tunnels, a claim which Egbert III later refuted. Unlike in Stranger Things, where Will is reunited with his family, Egbert III committed suicide a month after his reappearance.

Fast forward to today, and D&D has climbed even higher in popularity thanks to the 2023 multimillion-dollar movie Dungeons & Dragons: Honor Among Thieves, which grossed $200 million, turning a profit despite its $150 million budget.

SpaceX is investigating a problem with the Falcon 9 rocket’s upper stage that caused it to reenter the atmosphere and fall into the sea outside of its intended disposal area after a Saturday launch with a two-man crew heading to the International Space Station.

The upper stage malfunction apparently occurred after the Falcon 9 successfully deployed SpaceX’s Crew Dragon spacecraft carrying NASA astronaut Nick Hague and Russian cosmonaut Aleksandr Gorbunov on SpaceX’s Crew-9 mission. Hague and Gorbunov safely arrived at the space station Sunday to begin a five-month stay at the orbiting research complex.

The Falcon 9’s second stage Merlin vacuum engine fired for more than six minutes to place the Crew Dragon spacecraft into orbit after liftoff from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, Florida. The engine was supposed to reignite later to steer the upper stage on a trajectory back into Earth’s atmosphere for disposal over the South Pacific Ocean, ensuring the rocket doesn’t remain in orbit as a piece of space junk.

“After today’s successful launch of Crew-9, Falcon 9’s second stage was disposed in the ocean as planned, but experienced an off-nominal deorbit burn,” SpaceX posted on X late Saturday night. “As a result, the second stage safely landed in the ocean, but outside of the targeted area. We will resume launching after we better understand root cause.”

Safety warnings issued to mariners and pilots before the launch indicated the Falcon 9’s upper stage was supposed to fall somewhere in a narrow band stretching from southwest to northeast in the South Pacific east of New Zealand. Most of the rocket was expected to burn up during reentry, but SpaceX targets a remote part of the ocean for disposal because some debris was likely to survive and reach the sea.

SpaceX didn’t release any more details on the upper stage malfunction. Jonathan McDowell, an astrophysicist and expert on spaceflight activity, wrote on X that the most likely failure mode that would still result in a reentry is a “slight underburn” of the Merlin vacuum engine. This would result in the rocket going off course and reentering somewhere over the Pacific Ocean farther downrange, northeast of the projected disposal area.

Third time in three months

This is the third time SpaceX has grounded the Falcon 9 rocket in less than three months, ending a remarkable run of flawless launches.

SpaceX’s upper stage failed during the July 11 launch of a batch of 20 Starlink Internet satellites, stranding the payloads in a lower-than-planned orbit that caused them to reenter the atmosphere and burn up. This was the first mission failure for a Falcon 9 rocket in 335 missions since 2016, a record unmatched in the history of space launch vehicles.

Engineers traced the problem to a crack in a “sense line” for a pressure sensor attached to the vehicle’s liquid oxygen system, resulting in a liquid oxygen leak that prevented the rocket from completing the second burn of its upper stage engine. While Saturday’s upper stage issue is still under investigation, it also arose on the second burn of the Merlin vacuum engine.

As of Monday morning, if one wanted to grasp the historic nature of flooding from the remnants of Hurricane Helene in western parts of North Carolina and the surrounding areas, the logical place to begin is at the National Climatic Data Center.

This federal office maintains the world’s largest climate data archive and provides historical perspective to put present-day weather conditions and natural disasters into context in a warming world due to climate change.

Unfortunately, the National Climatic Data Center is based in Asheville, North Carolina. As I write this, the center’s website remains offline. That’s because Asheville, a city in North Carolina’s Blue Ridge Mountains, is the epicenter of catastrophic flooding from Hurricane Helene that has played out over the last week. The climate data facility is inoperable because water and electricity services in the region have entirely broken down due to flooding.

At a news briefing this weekend, the governor of North Carolina, Roy Cooper, said flooding from the hurricane represented an “unprecedented” tragedy. Nearly half a million people remained without power, and hundreds of thousands of people lacked drinkable water. At least three dozen people have died from the flooding, and videos have revealed apocalyptic damage in areas where dams failed and highways washed out.

So far from the coast

So how does a region nearly 500 miles from the Gulf of Mexico become devastated by flooding from a hurricane that originated there?

The answer is that Helene’s rapid movement inland—it was one of the fastest-moving storms at landfall in the Gulf of Mexico in recent history—created a massive river of atmospheric moisture and funneled it into parts of North Carolina, northern Georgia, and southeastern Tennessee.

We don’t have any definitive answers yet on how much moisture was sucked northward by Helene and dropped in a deluge on these areas. But by at least one measure, known as integrated vapor transport, the extent of the moisture available for heavy rainfall appears to be historic.

Meteorologist Ben Noll said that the level of moisture transported to western North Carolina is more than 1.5 times greater than any event in the historical record for the region. Using specific humidity, wind components, and pressure differential, the resulting “integrated vapor transport” units are kilograms of water vapor per meter per second. Noll estimates that about 3,000 kilograms (per meter, per second) were transferred into North Carolina at the height of the storm, shattering the previous record of 1,883.

Noll’s work has not been peer-reviewed, and his analysis is necessarily preliminary, but it provides some sense of the unprecedented precipitation unleashed on this region.

Isolated areas of North Carolina received 30 inches (76 cm) or more of rainfall from Helene, and widespread accumulations of 15 inches or more were also reported. While these kinds of rainfall totals are not unprecedented along the Gulf Coast from particularly nasty tropical storms and hurricanes, they are extraordinary for areas well inland.

A rare but not unprecedented event

The hilly terrain in the Appalachians is not built to handle such torrential rainfall, so there have been multiple dam failures and destroyed homes. The National Weather Service issued more flash flood emergencies last week than it ever had before.

Perhaps the only comparable event, in which a storm struck the Gulf of Mexico coast and dropped incredible amounts of rainfall hundreds of miles away, came in 1969 with Hurricane Camille. After making landfall in extreme southeastern Louisiana, Camille tracked over Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, and West Virginia before combining with a frontal boundary over Virginia and producing epic rains of up to 25 inches.

In a single rural Virginia county to the west of Richmond, Nelson County, 133 bridges were washed out. The flooding killed an estimated 153 people.

On Monday, the UK will see the closure of its last operational coal power plant, Ratcliffe-on-Soar, which has been operating since 1968. The closure of the plant, which had a capacity of 2,000 megawatts, will bring an end to the history of the country’s coal use, which started with the opening of the first coal-fired power station in 1882. Coal played a central part in the UK’s power system in the interim, in some years providing over 90 percent of its total electricity.

But a number of factors combined to place coal in a long-term decline: the growth of natural gas-powered plants and renewables, pollution controls, carbon pricing, and a government goal to hit net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.

From boom to bust

It’s difficult to overstate the importance of coal to the UK grid. It was providing over 90 percent of the UK’s electricity as recently as 1956. The total amount of power generated continued to climb well after that, reaching a peak of 212 terawatt hours of production by 1980. And the construction of new coal plants was under consideration as recently as the late 2000s. According to the organization Carbon Brief’s excellent timeline of coal use in the UK, continuing the use of coal with carbon capture was given consideration.

But several factors slowed the use of fuel ahead of any climate goals set out by the UK, some of which have parallels to the US’s situation. The European Union, which included the UK at the time, instituted new rules to address acid rain, which raised the cost of coal plants. In addition, the exploitation of oil and gas deposits in the North Sea provided access to an alternative fuel. Meanwhile, major gains in efficiency and the shift of some heavy industry overseas cut demand in the UK significantly.

Through their effect on coal use, these changes also lowered employment in coal mining. The mining sector has sometimes been a significant force in UK politics, but the decline of coal reduced the number of people employed in the sector, reducing its political influence.

These had all reduced the use of coal even before governments started taking any aggressive steps to limit climate change. But, by 2005, the EU implemented a carbon trading system that put a cost on emissions. By 2008, the UK government adopted national emissions targets, which have been maintained and strengthened since then by both Labour and Conservative governments up until Rishi Sunak, who was voted out of office before he had altered the UK’s trajectory. What started as a pledge for a 60 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 now requires the UK to hit net zero by that date.

These have included a floor on the price of carbon that ensures fossil-powered plants pay a cost for emissions that’s significant enough to promote the transition to renewables, even if prices in the EU’s carbon trading scheme are too low for that. And that transition has been rapid, with the total generations by renewables nearly tripling in the decade since 2013, heavily aided by the growth of offshore wind.

How to clean up the power sector

The trends were significant enough that, in 2015, the UK announced that it would target the end of coal in 2025, despite the fact that the first coal-free day on the grid wouldn’t come until two years after. But two years after that landmark, however, the UK was seeing entire weeks where no coal-fired plants were active.

To limit the worst impacts of climate change, it will be critical for other countries to follow the UK’s lead. So it’s worthwhile to consider how a country that was committed to coal relatively recently could manage such a rapid transition. There are a few UK-specific factors that won’t be possible to replicate everywhere. The first is that most of its coal infrastructure was quite old—Ratcliffe-on-Soar dates from the 1960s—and so it required replacement in any case. Part of the reason for its aging coal fleet was the local availability of relatively cheap natural gas, something that might not be true elsewhere, which put economic pressure on coal generation.

Another key factor is that the ever-shrinking number of people employed by coal power didn’t exert significant pressure on government policies. Despite the existence of a vocal group of climate contrarians in the UK, the issue never became heavily politicized. Both Labour and Conservative governments maintained a fact-based approach to climate change and set policies accordingly. That’s notably not the case in countries like the US and Australia.

But other factors are going to be applicable to a wide variety of countries. As the UK was moving away from coal, renewables became the cheapest way to generate power in much of the world. Coal is also the most polluting source of electrical power, providing ample reasons for regulation that have little to do with climate. Forcing coal users to pay even a fraction of its externalized costs on human health and the environment serve to make it even less economical compared to alternatives.

If these later factors can drive a move away from coal despite government inertia, then it can pay significant dividends in the fight to limit climate change. Inspired in part by the success in moving its grid off coal, the new Labour government in the UK has moved up its timeline for decarbonizing its power sector to 2030 (up from the previous Conservative government’s target of 2035).

The infamous CEO of a failed hospital system is suing an entire Senate committee after being held in contempt of Congress, with civil and criminal charges unanimously approved by the full Senate last week.

In a federal lawsuit filed Monday, Steward CEO Ralph de la Torre claimed the senators “bulldozed over [his] constitutional rights” as they tried to “pillory and crucify him as a loathsome criminal” in a “televised circus.”

The Senate committee—the Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions (HELP), led by Bernie Sanders (I-Vt.)—issued a rare subpoena to de la Torre in July, compelling him to testify before the lawmakers. They sought to question the CEO on the deterioration of his hospital system, which previously included more than 30 hospitals across eight states. Steward filed for bankruptcy in May.

Imperiled patients

The committee alleges that de la Torre and Steward executives reaped millions in personal profits by hollowing out the health care facilities, even selling the land out from under them. The mismanagement left them so financially burdened that one doctor in a Steward-owned hospital in Louisiana said they were forced to perform “third-world medicine.” A lawmaker in that state who investigated the conditions at the hospital described Steward executives as “health care terrorists.”

Further, the financial strain on the hospitals is alleged to have led to the preventable deaths of 15 patients and put more than 2,000 other patients in “immediate peril.” As hospitals cut services, closed wards, or shuttered entirely, hundreds of health care workers were laid off, and communities were left without access to care. Nurses who remained in faltering facilities testified of harrowing conditions, including running out of basic supplies like beds. In one Massachusetts hospital, nurses were forced to place the remains of newborns in cardboard shipping boxes because Steward failed to pay a vendor for bereavement boxes.

Meanwhile, records indicate de la Torre and his companies were paid at least $250 million in recent years and he bought a 190-foot yacht for $40 million. Steward also owned two private jets collectively worth $95 million.

While de la Torre initially agreed to testify before the committee at the September 12 hearing, the wealthy CEO backed out the week beforehand. He claimed that a federal court order linked to the bankruptcy case prevented him from speaking on the matter; additionally, he invoked his Fifth Amendment right to avoid self-incrimination.

The HELP committee rejected de la Torre’s arguments, saying there were still relevant topics he could safely discuss without violating the order and that his Fifth Amendment rights did not permit him to refuse to appear before Congress when summoned by a subpoena. Still, the CEO was a no-show, and the Senate moved forward with the contempt charges.

“Not the way this works”

In the lawsuit filed today, de la Torre argues that the senators are attempting to punish him for invoking his Constitutional rights and that the hearing “was simply a device for the Committee to attack [him] and try to publicly humiliate and condemn him.”

The suit describes de la Torre as having a “distinguished career, bedecked by numerous accomplishments,” while accusing the senators of painting him as “a villain and scapegoat[ing] him for the company’s problems, even those caused by systemic deficiencies in Massachusetts’ health care system.” If he had appeared at the Congressional hearing, he would not have been able to defend himself from the personal attacks without being forced to abandon his Constitutional rights, the suit argues.

“Indeed, the Committee made it abundantly clear that they would put Dr. de la Torre’s invocation [of the Fifth Amendment] itself at the heart of their televised circus and paint him as guilty for the sin of remaining silent in the face of these assaults on his character and integrity,” the suit reads.

De la Torre seeks to have the federal court quash the Senate committee’s subpoena, enjoin both contempt charges, and declare that the Senate committee violated his Fifth Amendment rights.

Outside lawyers are skeptical that will occur. The lawsuit is a “Hail Mary play,” according to Stan M. Brand, an attorney who represented former Trump White House official Peter Navarro in a contempt of Congress case. De la Torre’s case “has very little chance of succeeding—I would say no chance of succeeding,” Brand told the Boston Globe.

“Every time that someone has tried to sue the House or Senate directly to challenge a congressional subpoena, the courts have said, ‘That that’s not the way this works,’” Brand said.

Billions of cells die in your body every day. Some go out with a bang, others with a whimper.

They can die by accident if they’re injured or infected. Alternatively, should they outlive their natural lifespan or start to fail, they can carefully arrange for a desirable demise, with their remains neatly tidied away.

Originally, scientists thought those were the only two ways an animal cell could die, by accident or by that neat-and-tidy version. But over the past couple of decades, researchers have racked up many more novel cellular death scenarios, some specific to certain cell types or situations. Understanding this panoply of death modes could help scientists save good cells and kill bad ones, leading to treatments for infections, autoimmune diseases, and cancer.

“There’s lots and lots of different flavors here,” says Michael Overholtzer, a cell biologist at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in New York. He estimates that there are now more than 20 different names to describe cell death varieties.

Here, Knowable Magazine profiles a handful of classic and new modes by which cells kick the bucket.

Unplanned cell death: Necrosis

Lots of bad things can happen to cells: They get injured or burned, poisoned or starved of oxygen, infected by microbes or otherwise diseased. When a cell dies by accident, it’s called necrosis.

There are several necrosis types, none of them pretty: In the case of gangrene, when cells are starved for blood, cells rot away. In other instances, dying cells liquefy, sometimes turning into yellow goop. Lung cells damaged by tuberculosis turn smushy and white — the technical name for this type, “caseous” necrosis, literally means “cheese-like.”

Any form of death other than necrosis is considered “programmed,” meaning it’s carried out intentionally by the cell because it’s damaged or has outlived its usefulness.

A good, clean death: Apoptosis

The two main categories of programmed cell death are “silent and violent,” says Thirumala-Devi Kanneganti, an immunologist at St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital in Memphis, Tennessee. Apoptosis, first named in 1972, is the original silent type: It’s a neat, clean form of cell death that doesn’t wake the immune system.

That’s handy when cells are damaged or have served out their purpose. Apoptosis allows tadpoles to discard tail cells when they become frogs, for example, or human embryos to dispose of the webbing between developing fingers.

The cell shrinks and detaches from its neighbors. Genetic material in the nucleus breaks into pieces that scrunch together, and the nucleus itself fragments. The membrane bubbles and blisters, and the cell disintegrates. Other cells gobble up the bits, keeping the tissue tidy.

Four years after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, doctors and researchers are still seeking ways to help patients with long COVID, the persistent and often debilitating symptoms that can continue long after a COVID-19 infection.

In adults, the most common long COVID symptoms include fatigue and brain fog, but for children the condition can look different. A study published last month suggests preteens are more likely to experience symptoms such as headaches, stomach pain, trouble sleeping, and attention difficulties. Even among children, effects seem to vary by age. “There seems to be some differences between age groups, with less signs of organ damage in younger children and more adultlike disease in adolescents,” says Petter Brodin, professor of pediatric immunology at Imperial College London.

While vast sums have been devoted to long COVID research—the US National Institutes of Health have spent more than a billion dollars on research projects and clinical trials—research into children with the condition has been predominantly limited to online surveys, calls with parents, and studies of electronic health records. This is in spite of a recent study suggesting that between 10 and 20 percent of children may have developed long COVID following an acute infection, and another report finding that while many have recovered, some still remain ill three years later.

Now, what’s believed to be the first clinical trial specifically aimed at children and young adults with long COVID is underway, recruiting subjects aged 7 to 21 on which to test a potential treatment. It builds on research that suggests long COVID in children may be linked to the gut.

In May 2021, Lael Yonker, a pediatric pulmonologist at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, published a study of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C), which she says is now regarded as a more severe and acute version of long COVID. It showed that these children had elevated levels of a protein called zonulin, a sign of a so-called leaky gut. Higher levels of zonulin are associated with greater permeability in the intestine, which could enable SARS-CoV-2 viral particles to leak out of the intestines and into the bloodstream instead of being excreted out of the body. From there, they could trigger inflammation.

As Yonker began to see more and more children with long COVID, she theorized that many of the gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms they were experiencing might be linked. But her original study also pointed to a possible solution. When she gave the children with MIS-C a drug called larazotide, an existing treatment for people with issues relating to a leaky gut, the levels of viral particles in their blood decreased and their symptoms improved.